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2013年10月30日星期三

'Lost world' discovered on Australias Cape York Peninsula

Oct. 28, 2013 — A James Cook University-National Geographic expedition to Cape York Peninsula in north-east Australia has found three vertebrate species new to science and isolated for millions of years -- a bizarre looking leaf-tail gecko, a golden-coloured skink and a boulder-dwelling frog.

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Earlier this year Dr Conrad Hoskin from James Cook University and National Geographic photographer/Harvard University researcher Dr Tim Laman teamed up for an expedition to explore a remote mountain range on Cape York Peninsula in north-east Australia.

The rugged mountain range of Cape Melville is an amazing place -- millions of black granite boulders the size of cars and houses piled hundreds of meters high. Surveys have previously been conducted in the boulder-fields around the base of Cape Melville but the plateau of boulder-strewn rainforest on top had remained largely unexplored, fortressed by massive boulder walls.

In March this year, with funding from the National Geographic Expedition Council, Hoskin, Laman and a National Geographic film crew flew in by helicopter to explore the uplands. The results were incredible. Within several days they had discovered three highly distinct new vertebrate species (a leaf-tailed gecko, a golden-coloured skink, and a boulder-dwelling frog) as well as a host of other interesting species that may also be new to science.

"Finding three new, obviously distinct vertebrates would be surprising enough in somewhere poorly explored like New Guinea, let alone in Australia, a country we think we've explored pretty well," said Dr Hoskin.

The upland of Cape Melville is a thoroughly isolated rainforest island in a 'sea' of hot, dry forest. The gecko, skink, frog and other rainforest-associated inhabitants have been completely isolated up there for millions of years.

"These species are restricted to the upland rainforest and boulder-fields of Cape Melville. They've been isolated there for millennia, evolving into distinct species in their unique rocky environment," Dr Hoskin said.

The three new species have been named by Dr Hoskin, with the descriptions appearing in October issues of the international journal Zootaxa.

The highlight was the discovery of the leaf-tailed gecko. Leaf-tail geckos are large (20 cm), 'primitive-looking' geckos that are Gondwanan relics from a time when rainforest was more widespread in Australia. The Cape Melville Leaf-tailed Gecko is highly distinct from all relatives and has been named Saltuarius eximius. The species name translates as 'exceptional', 'extraordinary' or 'exquisite', in reference to its unusual form and how distinct it is.

"The second I saw the gecko I knew it was a new species. Everything about it was obviously distinct," said Dr Hoskin.

This spectacular gecko is hidden in the boulders in the day and emerges at night to hunt on rocks and trees. Highly camouflaged, the geckos sit motionless, head-down waiting to ambush passing insects and spiders. Intriguing features of the gecko are its huge eyes and incredibly long and slender body and limbs -- probably all adaptations to life in the dimly lit boulder-fields.

Patrick Couper, Curator of Reptiles and Frogs at the Queensland Museum, and collaborator on the gecko's description, said "That this gecko was hidden away in a small patch of rainforest on top of Cape Melville is truly remarkable."

"What makes it even more remarkable is that two other totally new vertebrates were found at the same time." he said.

"The Cape Melville Leaf-tailed Gecko is the strangest new species to come across my desk in 26 years working as a professional herpetologist. I doubt that another new reptile of this size and distinctiveness will be found in a hurry, if ever again, in Australia."

The Cape Melville Shade Skink (Saproscincus saltus) was also discovered and described. This beautiful golden-coloured skink is also restricted to moist rocky rainforest on the plateau. It is also long-limbed, but unlike the gecko is active by day, running and jumping across the mossy boulders hunting insects. The species name 'saltus', means 'leaping'. This species is highly distinct from its relatives, which are in rainforests to the south.

Also discovered was a fascinating boulder-dwelling frog, the Blotched Boulder-frog (Cophixalus petrophilus). This small frog is completely restricted to the boulder-fields at Cape Melville. Aptly, its species name means 'rock-loving'. During the dry season the frog lives deep down in the labyrinth of the boulder-field where conditions are cool and moist. In the summer wet season the frog emerges on the surface rocks to feed and breed in the rain.

"You might wonder how a frog's tadpoles can live in a 'hollow' boulder-field with no water sitting around." Dr Hoskin said. "The answer is that the eggs are laid in moist rock cracks and the tadpoles develop within the eggs, guarded by the male, until fully-formed froglets hatch out. As for the gecko, its eyes are very large -- once again an adaptation for life in the dimly lit boulder-piles."

"This frog lives most of its life deep in the boulder-fields where it is dark, cool and moist, and only comes to the surface when it rains." Dr Hoskin said.

Given the discovery of three new vertebrate species, Cape Melville clearly holds many more secrets for future expeditions.

"The top of Cape Melville is a lost world. Finding these new species up there is the discovery of a life time -- I'm still amazed and buzzing from it." said Dr Hoskin.

An illustrated feature story on the expedition can be seen at: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131025-lost-world-australia-gecko-frog-skink-science-animals/

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Business The ARM Club

2013/10/29

ARM Connected Community ARM has launched an interactive platform to make it easier to design around its architecture and act as a hub where developers and design engineers can collaborate, discuss ideas and challenges, and stay updated on the latest news from ARM and its partner CC Teams.

The ARM ecosystem includes more than 1,000 partners, countless developers and engineers developing ARM-based solutions.

“With the rapid pace of innovation today, the interactive exchange of ideas and access to information are more critical than ever before,” says Ian Drew, ARM’s CMO, “this interactive platform complements the existing ARM Connected Community program and provides a forum for meaningful discussion around ARM technologies and architecture.”

The platform comprises a series of sub-communities, known as “places”. Each place has moderators to work with subject-matter experts, advocates and developers to create content, engage with community members, and help drive discussion.

In the first phase of the platform’s development, it focuses on the following areas:

Android – This place targets developers of devices or apps for Android, and includes information including Android porting guides, reference platform details and Linux kernel data.

Embedded – This place will discuss the trends, products and platforms that serve a range of embedded markets across automotive, industrial, medical, home, agriculture and numerous other industries

ARM Mali graphics- This is a place to ask questions, collaborate on projects and discuss the latest Mali™ GPU tools, drivers and development platforms.

ARM Cortex processors – This is the place to be for all things related to ARM Cortex® processors, whether you are an established developer, designer, SoC expert or just getting started on ARM.

Smart and Connected – This place focuses on mobile, computing, wearables and consumer electronics based on ARM technology.

SoC Implementation – This place delves into planning and designing SoCs, as conversations will cover design and implementation, technology challenges, manufacturing processes and physical IP.

ARM and Keil Tools – This place focuses on software development families that offer all the necessary solutions for every stage of the software development workflow – such as the ARM mbed development platform, DS-5 embedded development tools and Keil MDK-ARM software development environment.

China – This place is completely in simplified Chinese and contains blogs, discussions, videos and whitepapers to help our Chinese developer community to design on the ARM architecture.

News – This place is the center for news and event information surrounding ARM and the ARM ecosystem.

Find a Partner – The partner directory collates profiles and product family information from the global network of more than 1,000 partner companies which provide solutions along the value chain for products based on the ARM architecture.

The conversation can be joined at http://community.arm.com.

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Echolocation: Bats and whales behave in surprisingly similar ways

Echolocation systems are one of Nature's extremely successful specializations. About 1,100 species of bats and roughly 80 species of toothed whales use the technique -- this is 25% of all living species of mammals. But why have such different animals as whales and bats both developed the same technique? The reason cannot be found in kinship, as bats and whales are no closer related to each other than all other mammals descended from the same land vertebrates for 200 million years ago.

The answer lies in convergent evolution -- when almost identical features or developments happen in different species. Through evolution both bats and toothed whales have developed the same functional characteristics.

Researchers from the two Danish universities, Aarhus University and University of Southern Denmark, have now studied the acoustic properties of the technique behind echolocation in bats and whales in the wild. Previous studies of their abilities to locate and catch prey have primarily been based on laboratory tests, and the studies in the wild now provide a much more realistic picture of how the animals use echolocation.

The studies have been published in the scientific magazine Physiology entitled "Functional Convergence in Bat and Toothed Whale Biosonars." The authors of the study are Professor Peter Teglberg Madsen from Aarhus University and Professor Annemarie Surlykke from University of Southern Denmark.

"Our studies have shown that the sounds of bats and toothed whales are surprisingly similar. This is due to two things: First, all mammalian ears are developed in quite similar ways, and second, -- which is the most surprising -- the contradicting physical conditions in air and water along with the differences in size of the animals even out the differences, that you would expect in the sound frequency," says Professor Annemarie Surlykke from University of Southern Denmark.

As a bat is much smaller than a whale and its prey is accordingly smaller, it needs to produce sounds with a very high frequency in order to achieve the same capacity to determine direction and size of its prey. However, the effect of the higher frequency will be partially cancelled out by the fact that the sound is transported five times as slowly and that the sound waves therefore are five times as short in air as in water.

The researchers conclude that bats and toothed whales produce signals for echolocation in the same frequency range, from 10 to 200 kHz.

The advantage of operating in water rather than air is that the whale's "acoustic field of vision" is up to six times larger than the bat's. The "acoustic field of vision" is the area where the animal can "see" their surroundings using echolocation. A sperm whale can echolocate prey up to 500 meters away, while a bat's echolocation distance is only 2-10 meters.

Bats fly fast and cover approx. one echolocation distance per second. Therefore they often spend less than a second on detecting and catching their prey. Whales move more slowly and have a much greater echolocation distance. Thus they have more time to pick up information from the echoes and they have time to select their prey more carefully. This may explain why bats do not seem to be particularly picky with their prey, while toothed whales are much more selective about their food. The bat simply does not have the time to choose -- it goes for fast food!

In the last part of the hunting phase, when they approach their prey both toothed whales and bats emit a series of buzzing sounds: Weak and short sound pulses at very short intervals -- similar to strobe lights. It is a very complex mechanism that scientists do not yet fully understand. The animals control very carefully when they emit sounds and when they listen for echoes -- and they adjust this exactly to their own and the prey's speed. If they emit the buzzing sounds too fast they do not have time to listen for the echoes. If they do it too slowly they risk hitting obstacles on the fly.

"The mechanism must play a key role but we do not yet know exactly which one," says Professor Peter Teglberg from Aarhus University and continues: "There is a need for further studies and fortunately new technologies make it possible to track animals in the wild, study their behavior and compare these results with the knowledge we have from the laboratory."

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Scientists shine light on world's least-studied bat

Today, in a paper in the open access journal ZooKeys, a team of bat biologists led by Don Buden of the College of Micronesia published a wealth of new information on this "forgotten" species, including the first detailed observations of wild populations.

And it is none too soon, says paper co-author Kristofer Helgen of the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, as the low-lying atolls this bat calls home are likely to be increasingly affected by rising ocean waters brought on by climate change.

"Very little is known about many of the mammals that live on remote Pacific islands, including this beautiful flying fox," Helgen said. "This study gives us our first close look at a remarkable bat."

The lone London specimen was collected in 1870 from the Mortlock Islands, a series of atolls that are part of the Federated States of Micronesia in the west-central Pacific Ocean. British biologist Oldfield Thomas used this specimen to name the species Pteropus phaeocephalus in 1882. But during a recent study of the bat, Buden discovered that a German naturalist voyaging on a Russian expedition had observed and named the animal some 50 years earlier.

"We found a report written by F.H. Kittlitz in 1836 describing his expedition to the Pacific Islands in the late 1820s. In that report he describes the flying-foxes of the Mortlocks and names them Pteropus pelagicus," Buden said. "This means the species was named long before Thomas's description in 1882."

According to internationally established rules for naming animals, the earliest available scientific name of a species must be officially adopted. In the ZooKeys paper the scientists comply with this rule by renaming the Mortlock Islands flying fox Pteropus pelagicus. Not only does Kittlitz correctly deserve credit for the discovery of the species 50 years earlier than previously thought, but he can now also be credited for its "new" original name.

During their research -- which involved careful study of the skulls and skins of related flying fox species in 8 different museums on 3 different continents -- the researchers straightened out a second point of confusion in the scientific literature regarding these animals. They demonstrated that flying foxes from the nearby islands of Chuuk Lagoon, long regarded as the separate species Pteropus insularis, are best regarded as a subspecies of Pteropus pelagicus. This finding shows that the Mortlock flying fox has a wider geographic distribution than previously realized.

New fieldwork on the Mortlock Islands revealed more than name changes. The article describes the first study of the behavior, diet and conservation status of this flying fox, finding that the Mortlock Islands support a small population of 900 to 1,200 bats scattered across a land surface of only 4.6 square miles. Legal rules have brought better protection to the species, which was once heavily hunted and exported for food.

But the future of the species remains uncertain, Helgen points out. In their study of Mortlock Islands geography, the researchers learned none of the islands are more than a few meters high. Rising sea levels, generated by climate change, pose a serious threat to the flying foxes' habitat and its food resources through flooding, erosion and contamination of freshwater supplies.

"When we think of climate change having an impact on a mammal species, what comes to mind most immediately is an Arctic animal like the polar bear, which depends on sea ice to survive," Helgen said. "But this flying fox may be the best example of a mammal species likely to be negatively impacted by warming global climates. Here is a tropical mammal that has survived and evolved for hundreds of millennia on little atolls near the equator. How much longer will it survive as sea levels continue to rise?"

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How poverty molds the brain

Oct. 29, 2013 — Groundbreaking research nearly two decades ago linking a mother's educational background to her children's literacy and cognitive abilities stands out among decades of social science studies demonstrating the adverse effects of poverty.

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Now new research conducted at Northwestern University has taken that finding in a neuroscientific direction: linking poor processing of auditory information in the adolescent brain to a lower maternal educational background.

"These adolescents had noisier neural activity than their classmates, even when no sound was presented," said Nina Kraus, the Hugh Knowles Professor of Neurobiology, Physiology and Communication Sciences at Northwestern and corresponding author of the study.

In addition, the neural response to speech for the adolescents from a lower maternal educational background was erratic over repeated stimulation, with lower fidelity to the incoming sound.

"Think about the neural noise like static in a radio -- with the announcer's voice coming in faintly," Kraus said.

Maternal education acted as a proxy for socioeconomic status for the study. Adolescents were divided into two groups, according to whether their mothers had a high school education or less or had completed some post-secondary schooling.

Not only did the adolescents from a lower maternal educational background have neural responses to speech sounds that were nosier, more variable and represented the input signal weakly, but their performances on tests of reading and working memory also were poorer.

"The impoverished brain: Disparities in maternal education affect the neural response to sound" will be published Oct. 30 in the Journal of Neuroscience. Its authors are Erika Skoe, assistant professor of speech, language and hearing sciences at the University of Connecticut; Jennifer Krizman, a doctoral student in Northwestern's Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory; and Kraus, also the director of the Auditory Neuroscience Lab.

This study builds on evidence that children from low-income families experience a type of auditory impoverishment. The landmark study by Hart and Risley (1995) revealed that children in high-income families are exposed to 30 million more words than children from families on welfare. This reduction in the quality and quantity of language input, along with greater exposure to unstructured sound such as ambient noise, may be affecting how the brain represents auditory information.

In urban populations, income and amount of noise exposure are known to be correlated. Consistent with the idea that noisy auditory environments increase neural noise, the new Journal of Neuroscience study found that the adolescents from the lower maternal educational group have increased neural activity in the absence of sound input.

According to the study, "Neural models indicate that when the input to a neuron is noisier, the firing rate becomes more variable, ultimately limiting the amount of sensory information that can be transmitted."

"If your brain is creating a different signal each time you hear a sound, you might be losing some of the details of the sound," said Skoe, lead author of the study. "Losing these details may create challenges in the classroom and other noisy settings."

The new research conducted at Northwestern contributes to a recent wave of neuroscientific research demonstrating that sociocultural factors influence brain structure and function.

Another recently published study from the Kraus lab showed that inconsistent neural responses to sounds relate to poor reading but that by acoustically augmenting the classroom, neural responses became more stable.

"Modifying the auditory world for a particular student, even if just for a portion of the day, may improve academic performance and fine-tune how sound is automatically encoded in the brain," Skoe said.

Ongoing work in Northwestern's Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory is investigating whether auditory enrichment in the form of music education and other school-based activities can offset the negative impact of an impoverished acoustic environment.

For the new study, brain activity of Chicago Public School adolescents, almost all ninth-graders, was assessed both in response to and in the absence of auditory input. The nervous system's responses to speech sounds were observed through passive electrophysiological recordings, with students grouped according to the highest educational level achieved by their mothers.

The responses reflect activity from a communication hub within the central nervous system that provides a snapshot of sensory, cognitive and reward circuits that are engaged to process sound. These fundamental, automatic responses to sound reflect past and ongoing sensory experiences and relate to linguistic and cognitive function.

The collection protocol for "the impoverished auditory brain" lasted roughly 20 minutes, during which participants sat comfortably watching a self-selected subtitled movie, while the brain response to speech syllables was passively collected.

The syllables were presented at a rapid rate to the right ear through an earphone placed in the ear canal. The left ear remained unblocked, making the movie sound track audible yet not intense enough to mask the stimulus.

The syllables chosen are common to many languages of the world, and their acoustic characteristics are perceptually challenging.

In addition, IQ assessments for the students were collected, and they were administered a standardized, age-normed test battery of reading ability and executive function (working memory). Previous work has revealed that the neurobiological systems mediating higher order functions such as language, memory and executive function are especially sensitive to disparities in socioeconomic status.

"By studying socioeconomic status within a neuroscientific framework, we have the potential to expand our understanding of the biological signatures of poverty," Kraus concluded. "And a better understanding of how experiences shape the brain could inform educational efforts aimed at closing the socioeconomic achievement gap."

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2013年10月29日星期二

日企将首次与清华合作研发分析测量仪器

据《日本经济新闻》近日道称，日本分析测量仪器厂商堀场制作所将与清华大学合作，共同研究防治大气以及水质污染的环保技术。首先将共同开发用于测量及分析造成微小颗粒物PM2.5发生的原因物质的设备。2013年年内计划在北京市内开始进行实际性操作试验。

报道指出，目前中国正加速制定环境治理对策，相关的大规模投资计划和限制措施也陆续出台。这对于在环保技术方面拥有优势的日本企业来说，将有望扩大商机。

此次，日本堀场制作所将与清华大学环境学院建立合作。将运用堀场制作所的测量技术，开发集尘能力及耐用性更强的，适合中国使用的新型设备。该设备将实现每小时自动对空气中的硫磺、盐酸、锰以及铁等有害物质进行测量。据称，相比目前使用的设备，该设备将具备对造成污染的原因进行详细分析的能力。

日本企业与清华大学在相关领域的合作尚属首次。据《日经新闻》透露，双方计划在北京市内的15个点分别设置开发的新设备，对市内各区域的污染状况和倾向进行分析。清华大学在中国国内有拥有对政策进行提案的机制，因此可以立足于研究成果敦促中国政府加强实施限制措施。双方还计划共同开发测定水质污染的相关仪器。

据悉，中国政府计划在今后5年间投入总共1.75万亿元用于整治大气污染。

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3D IC明年将量产设备厂商迎商机

台积电(2330)、日月光、矽品等大厂积极架构2.5D及3D IC封测产能，一般预料明年将进入3D IC量产元年，启动高阶生产线及3D IC设备商机，国内主要设备供应商弘塑、辛耘及万润等业绩吃香。

设备厂表示，3D IC可以改善存储器产品的性能表现与可靠度，并可协助减低成本与缩小产品尺寸，现今全球包括台积电、日月光、矽品、意法、三星、尔必达、美光、格罗方德、IBM、英特尔等多家公司都已陆续投入3D IC的研发与生产。

日月光集团研发中心总经理唐和明透露，目前3D IC从设计工具、制造、封装测试等所有流程的解决方案大致已准备就绪;日月光在2.5D IC及3D IC也已即将进入接单量产阶段。

据了解，2.5D及3D IC从前段、中段到后段制程均相当精密，各厂为了降低成本，近年来积极导入本土设备，也为提供湿制程酸槽设备、晶圆旋转机台及植晶设备的弘塑、辛耘及万润等带来庞大商机。

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Snakes on the brain: Are primates hard-wired to recognize snakes?

In a paper published Oct. 28 in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Isbell; Hisao Nishijo and Quan Van Le at Toyama University, Japan; and Rafael Maior and Carlos Tomaz at the University of Brasilia, Brazil; and colleagues show that there are specific nerve cells in the brains of rhesus macaque monkeys that respond to images of snakes.

The snake-sensitive neurons were more numerous, and responded more strongly and rapidly, than other nerve cells that fired in response to images of macaque faces or hands, or to geometric shapes. Isbell said she was surprised that more neurons responded to snakes than to faces, given that primates are highly social animals.

"We're finding results consistent with the idea that snakes have exerted strong selective pressure on primates," Isbell said.

Isbell originally published her hypothesis in 2006, following up with a book, "The Fruit, the Tree and the Serpent" (Harvard University Press, 2009) in which she argued that our primate ancestors evolved good, close-range vision primarily to spot and avoid dangerous snakes.

Modern mammals and snakes big enough to eat them evolved at about the same time, 100 million years ago. Venomous snakes are thought to have appeared about 60 million years ago -- "ambush predators" that have shared the trees and grasslands with primates.

Nishijo's laboratory studies the neural mechanisms responsible for emotion and fear in rhesus macaque monkeys, especially instinctive responses that occur without learning or memory. Previous researchers have used snakes to provoke fear in monkeys, he noted. When Nishijo heard of Isbell's theory, he thought it might explain why monkeys are so afraid of snakes.

"The results show that the brain has special neural circuits to detect snakes, and this suggests that the neural circuits to detect snakes have been genetically encoded," Nishijo said.

The monkeys tested in the experiment were reared in a walled colony and neither had previously encountered a real snake.

"I don't see another way to explain the sensitivity of these neurons to snakes except through an evolutionary path," Isbell said.

Isbell said she's pleased to be able to collaborate with neuroscientists.

"I don't do neuroscience and they don't do evolution, but we can put our brains together and I think it brings a wider perspective to neuroscience and new insights for evolution," she said.

Other co-authors on the paper were: Jumpei Matsumoto, Minh Nguyen, Etsuro Hori, Anh Hai Tran and Taketoshi Ono at Toyama University. The work is an international collaboration under the Asian Core Program of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.

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Mercury: Enduring contaminant legacy of the California Gold Rush transported by floods

Oct. 28, 2013 — An unintended legacy of California's gold rush, which began in 1848, endures today in the form of mercury-laden sediment. New research by Michael Singer, associate researcher at UC Santa Barbara's Earth Research Institute, shows that sediment-absorbed mercury is being transported by major floods from the Sierra Nevada mountains to Central Valley lowlands. The findings appear today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

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Contamination of food webs as a result of mercury-laden sediment, coupled with regional shifts in climate, poses a huge risk to the lowland ecosystems and to the human population as well because a lot of people eat fish from this system.

"This new study addresses a gap in the general theory of the evolution of toxic sediment emplaced by industrial mining, which enables anticipation, prediction and management of contamination to food webs," Singer said.

His research shows that mercury stored in immense Sierran human-made sediment deposits is carried by the Yuba River and other nearby streams to the Central Valley lowlands during 10-year flood events, most recently in 1986 and 1997. His team used several independent datasets and modeling of the episodic process to demonstrate how mercury-laden sediment stored in deep river valleys more than 150 years ago travels hundreds of miles into ecologically sensitive regions.

The discovery of this process was serendipitous. Singer and a colleague were working in California's Central Valley studying how quickly floodplains filled up with sediment when they came across Burma-Shave signs that said, "SAND."

"We thought that was quite strange because the floodplains around us were so much finer -- composed of silt and clay materials," recalled Singer. "So we followed the signs and ended up in a huge sand mine. They were mining sand by the truckload for the construction industry and said they would be doing so for at least the next several decades."

It turns out that a massive flood in 1986 in the Yuba River Basin brought enough sand with it to bury a major rice field, which a savvy farmer then leased to the sand-mining operator. According to Singer, the upstream Yuba was the biggest gold-mining drainage of all the Sierra drainages used in the 19th century, so it made sense to think about possible mercury contamination because gold rush miners used mercury to separate gold.

"They didn't just pan for gold," Singer said. "That's a romantic notion of gold mining. It was actually an industrial process whereby they sprayed giant high-pressure hoses, invented in 1852, at upland hillsides to wash the sediment downstream. Sides of mountains were washed away and sent downstream, and the sediment started filling in these confined river valleys, actually spreading all the way out to San Francisco Bay. This caused problems for steamboat operations and increased flooding on lowland farms. The U.S. government ultimately got involved and stopped the mining in 1884, which basically ended the gold rush overnight."

Singer says mercury is currently a big problem in San Francisco Bay and the Delta. "People know there was gold mining in the Sierra Nevada and they know that there was mercury mining in the Coast Ranges, but they're not really sure of the modern-day impact, especially when the contaminant sources are not directly by the bay," he said. "People want to know what is causing contamination of the food webs of the Central Valley."

The PNAS paper begins to answer that by documenting flood-driven fan erosion, sediment redistribution and a process called progradation, the growth of a sedimentary deposit farther out into the valley over time, which, in this case, spread the mercury-laden sediment into parts of the basin where there is higher risk of it being taken up by food webs.

The research team compared gold rush data with modern topographic datasets, which showed that the Yuba River was progressively cutting through the sediment and in the process leaving behind massive contaminated terraces along the riverbank. Flood data and modeling indicate that these terraces move only when a flood event is big enough to saturate them so that the terraces fail and the mercury-laden sediment is carried and driven downstream.

"There is a lot of sediment left in the system that is highly contaminated and readily available to be remobilized and sent downstream just because it's sitting in unconsolidated sediments along the margins of a river that can become very big during a storm," Singer said. "That susceptibility, coupled with projections for climate change in the region indicating more massive storms in the future, means that there is a dangerous synergy."

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集成整合设计理念大行其道 MCU与模拟器件整合潮流到来?

集成整合的设计理念大行其道。数字芯片是当前业界瞩目的焦点，但是即便数字IC的性能再优异，如果没有模拟IC的搭配，无法充分发挥其优势。因此，模拟器件必然成为整合大潮中的一份子。MCU集成模拟外设便是这一市场趋势的具体体现。

随着技术的发展，人们越来越需要将各种外界物理量，如温度、压力、流量等，转换成数字信号，再对这些数据进行处理，这是未来物联网概念基本的体现。在整个链路中，传感器可将物理量转换成电信号，经由放大及信号调理电路对这些信号进行处理，再经过A/D转换器，将模拟信号转换成数字信号，而MCU则可对数据进行处理并产生控制数字信号，这些信号经过D/A转换并变成电压/电流，驱动外部的开关/继电器等执行器件，最终通过各种接口进行通信。由此可见，MCU与模拟器件在功能上有越来越多的结合。因此，从系统的角度来看，将MCU与模拟器件集成具有市场意义。

首先，它可以简化电路设计，使系统具有更高的集成度。其次，在减少MCU外围器件的同时，也减少了工程师设计时出错的可能性，从而提高了系统的可靠性、工程师设计的便利性。最后，可以减小板级尺寸，对产品的轻薄化有利，甚至还有可能降低系统成本。这使得MCU的集成化趋势在近几年来得到了很好的演绎，一些国际领先的大厂商也开始了这方面的研发。不仅ARM阵营的MCU大厂开始集成模拟外设，MIPS阵营的MCU厂商也在积极推出相关产品。如Microchip公司近年来在MCU与模拟模块集合上便有相当建树，推出了系列产品。

当然，这种集合也存在相当多的挑战。毕竟模拟电路和数字电路设计理念存在诸多不同，将两个存在矛盾的功能块结合在一起时，倘若芯片内部处理不好的话，将降低整个芯片及系统的性能。另外，中国的工程师更擅长软件编程和数字电路设计，这些方面相对更容易快速掌握。而具有模拟电路设计经验的工程师则需要长时间的培养。这使得工程师在电路设计时，擅长对数字电路(MCU)方面的设计，而对于外围的模拟功能块，则只能参考芯片厂家提供的参考设计以及有限的技术支持。

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Toxic ocean conditions during major extinction 93.9 million years ago quantified: Doesn't take much sulfide to impact ocean life

The most studied and extensive of these events occurred 93.9 million years ago. By looking at the chemistry of rocks deposited during that time period, specifically coupled carbon and sulfur isotope data, a research team led by University of California, Riverside biogeochemists reports that oxygen-free and hydrogen sulfide-rich waters extended across roughly five percent of the global ocean during this major climatic perturbation -- far more than the modern ocean's 0.1 percent but much less than previous estimates for this event.

The research suggests that previous estimates of oxygen-free and hydrogen sulfide-rich conditions, or "euxinia," were too high. Nevertheless, the limited and localized euxinia were still sufficiently widespread to have dramatic effect on the entire ocean's chemistry and thus biological activity.

"These conditions must have impacted nutrient availability in the ocean and ultimately the spatial and temporal distribution of marine life," said team member Jeremy D. Owens, a former UC Riverside graduate student, who is now a postdoctoral scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. "Under low-oxygen environments, many biologically important metals and other nutrients are removed from seawater and deposited in the sediments on the seafloor, making them less available for life to flourish."

"What makes this discovery particularly noteworthy is that we mapped out a landscape of bioessential elements in the ocean that was far more perturbed than we expected, and the impacts on life were big," said Timothy W. Lyons, a professor of biogeochemistry at UCR, Owens's former advisor and the principal investigator on the research project.

Study results appear online this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Across the event 93.9 million years ago, a major biological extinction in the marine realm has already been documented. Also associated with this event are high levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which are linked to elevated ocean and atmospheric temperatures. Associated consequences include likely enhanced global rainfall and weathering of the continents, which further shifted the chemistry of the ocean.

"Our work shows that even though only a small portion of the ocean contained toxic and metal-scavenging hydrogen sulfide, it was sufficiently large so that changes to the ocean's chemistry and biology were likely profound," Owens said. "What this says is that only portions of the ocean need to contain sulfide to greatly impact biota."

For their analysis, the researchers collected seafloor mud samples, now rock, from multiple localities in England and Italy. They then performed chemical extraction on the samples to analyze the sulfur isotope compositions in order to estimate the chemistry of the global ocean.

According to the researchers, the importance of their study is elevated by the large amount of previous work on the same interval and thus the extensive availability of supporting data and samples. Yet despite all this past research, the team was able to make a fundamental discovery about the global conditions in the ancient ocean and their impacts on life.

"Today, we are facing rising carbon dioxide contents in the atmosphere through human activities, and the amount of oxygen in the ocean may drop correspondingly in the face of rising seawater temperatures," Lyons said. "Oxygen is less soluble in warmer water, and there are already suggestions of such decreases. In the face of these concerns, our findings from the warm, oxygen-poor ancient ocean may be a warning shot about yet another possible perturbation to marine ecology in the future."

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